Good Example Of Research Essay

1. B. Define, compare and contrast formative and summative evaluations.
Formative evaluation refers to an evaluation that occurs during or before the implementation of a project. A formative evaluation is undertaken so as to improve the design and projected performance of the project. A formative evaluation serves to enable the project executors understand why a particular program will work and why another one will fail to work, and what external and internal factors will affect the working of a particular project (McDavid et al, 2006). Formative evaluation finds use in projects that are still in the pilot stage and new programs that are being introduced; it is focused on process. Formative evaluation is both time and capital intensive, but it is a worthy investment that improves the capability to achieve better program designs hence successful project outcomes.
A summative evaluation refers to an evaluation that is most often undertaken at the conclusion of a project. The finds of a summative evaluation are used to make a decision whether a particular program should adopted, dropped, continued or modified for it to be improved (McDavid, 2006). Moreover, a summative evaluation examines the impact a particular intervention will have on what is targeted outcomes; it is focused on the outcome of the project. A summative evaluation is aimed at providing answers to questions of a particular policy will achieve the results that are intended
2. A. Thinking about the Meals on Wheels Program discussed in Chapter 2, provide a concrete example of each of the following components of a Program Logic ModelInput: The Meals On Wheels Association of America, volunteers or paid drivers, federal funding, voluntary contributions, moderate-fee chargedComponent: Cold meals, ready-to-eat meals hot meals, deep-frozen meals.Implementation Activity: Containers to carry the food, vans to deliver the food, financial fundingOutput: Delivery of food to a sick client to sustain themCompanionship to recipientsChecking on safety of the clientsDelivery to those who can’t cook in their homesIntended Outcomes:Fulfillment of volunteers who participate in delivering food stuffsAccess to food by the elderly.
3. B. Define and give an example of any two threats to internal validity.
Internal validity simply refers to how well an experimental project is done, more so whether this experimental project successfully avoids confounding. Confounding is a phenomenon whereby more than one independent variable is acting simultaneously. Minimized chances of confounding in a study points to a higher internal validity of the experiment.
Threat to Internal validity generally refers to variables that compromise the confidence of the research to state categorically whether a relationship exists between dependent and independent variables (McDavid et al, 2006). The threats to internal validity include maturation history. Maturation threat results if changes in the dependent variable are due to normal developmental processes that are operating within the subject as a function of time. On the other hand, internal validity threat of history refers to unanticipated events that occur when experiments are in progress and if these events affect the dependent variable.
An example of an internal validity threat of maturation is the performance of sophomores in a learning experiment beginning to decrease due to fatigue just after an hour.
An example of an internal validity threat of history is: in an experiment designed to amount power required to vaporize a letter of water, the students to fail to determine it due to unexpected power failure.
4. A. Identify and give an example of TWO methods by which a researcher can assess measurement validity.
Measurement validity is assessed through examining the a). Reliability and b). Validity of the method (McDavid, 2006). Reliability refers to the degree or level to which a tool used in the measurement produces consistent and stable results. An example of reliability analysis is that of the parallel forms reliability. Here different versions of an assessment tool are administered to the same group people. The scores from the two versions are then correlated to evaluate how the results are consistent across the two versions.
Validity refers to the closeness to the true value. An example of validity method is the face validity. Face validity is focused on making sure that the measure assesses the intended construct that is being studied.5. B. Identify and describe two sources of benchmarks in a needs assessment.

The two sources of benchmarks in a needs assessment are existing data and projected goals and objectives.

The available data is crucial in revealing the current needs. This data includes current budgets, current performance, and current expenditures. The new projects to be initiated should purpose to surpass the current level of performance. Therefore, existing information can be used as benchmark for desired future performance.
The projected goals and objectives will dictate the magnitude of projects to develop into fruition. The projected goals will determine the size of projects to develop. Henceforth, they will determine the amounts of money to invest in, the size of the human resource, and kind of technology to adopt. The desired future of something can be used to assess the needs that must be fulfilled to achieve this future. Therefore, future goals and objectives guide assessment of needs.

References

McDavid, James C., & Laura RL Hawthorn (Eds.). (2006). Program evaluation & performance measurement: An introduction to practice. Sage